Credit crunch!

Here are some common words and phrases to talk about problems in the economy.

Credit crunch = when borrowing money (from banks) becomes harder to get and more expensive.
(In the present credit crisis, banks stopped lending to other banks, then stopped lending to their customers, which means that there is now a shortage of credit and no more cheap credit).

Economic terms
The Central Banks and Finance ministers are trying to decide whether to inject more money into the financial markets (places where stocks or commodities for example are bought and sold). (Read an in-depth definition of financial markets.)

Many people now believe that we are now heading towards a downturn / recession / depression / financial crisis. Apart from the credit crunch, there are other signs that our economy might slide into recession, such as rising inflation and an increased cost of living. The government may respond by cutting interest rates (to bring down the rate of inflation).

To compound the misery (=make things worse), falling house prices mean some home owners face negative equity.

Overall, the forecast is pessimistic or gloomy.

Personal finances
High street banks (see our page on banking vocabulary) lend money to customers in the form of loans (such as car loans or personal loans) or in the form of mortgages to buy houses.
Sub prime mortgages, now often referred to as toxic mortgages, were sold to people with poor credit ratings. It is a combination of this type of risky lending, falling house prices and high interest rates which led to defaults on mortgage payments and foreclosures (=repossession). This in turn triggered the global financial crisis.

A number of banks have already gone bust or have been nationalised (= bought by the government) who try to reassure customers that their savings accounts are safe. In the UK, the government has announced that all savings accounts are guaranteed up to a threshold of £50,000. However, consumer confidence is low.

Unemployment
People worry about losing their jobs, or being made redundant. Some industries are cutting their workforce, and laying off staff. These job losses / job cuts / redundancies mean that there will be more claimants (for unemployment benefit) - or more people on the dole. (dole = unemployment benefit).

Phrases
weather the storm = survive bad times
be in good shape (the economy is in good shape) = to be strong
live beyond your means = not have enough money for your spending (so you need to borrow it)
pay the price = pay for your mistakes
foot the bill = pay for someone else
at rock bottom = to be so low you cannot go any further down
in free fall = keep falling without anything stopping the fall

House and home vocabulary

People in Britain often talk about their homes: their mortgages, the interest rates, and rising property prices. Here's a guide to some of the words and phrases you might come across.


Your dream home
It's a good idea in the UK to arrange a mortgage with a bank before you start looking. This is when the bank tells you how much money they will lend you so you have a good idea of how much you can afford.

The next step is to go to an estate agent (= a company which represents buyers and sellers of properties) to see what sort of properties they have available in your budget range and in your area. If you see something you like, the estate agent will arrange for you to view the property, so that you can see the house or flat for yourself.

If you see something that takes your eye, you put in an offer. The vendor (seller) can accept or decline this offer, and if the vendor accepts it, you can move forward with the sale. However, as you don't pay any money at this point, the offer isn't legally binding, and in theory, you can pull out of the offer at any time that you like.

Your next step will probably be to get a structural survey done. A qualified surveyor will inspect the house and write a report that illustrates any structural problems, like damp or drainage problems.

If you still want to go ahead with the sale, you need to appoint a solicitor (a lawyer) to do the conveyancing (= the legal paperwork.) If you already own a house, you might also be busy trying to sell it. Many house owners prefer to sell to first time buyers (those people who don't already own a home), as they are not in a chain (=waiting for other people to buy their house before they can buy their next house).

Finally, once the contracts are signed and exchanged, you complete on your house. You get the keys and you can move in whenever you want. Then you might want to throw a house-warming party. Congratulations!

English vocabulary for the kitchen

Some people have a fitted kitchen, where all the kitchen units have been bought together, and they are assembled according to a plan. Other people have a kitchen where the units are free-standing: not necessarily bought together at one time.

In a kitchen you are likely to find cupboards (or cabinets), either at floor level, or at eye level. In the eye level cupboards you will probably find dry goods (such as flour, sugar, rice, pasta, spices) and maybe glasses and crockery (plates, bowls etc). In the floor level cupboards you might find pots and pans: saucepans for cooking pasta etc; frying pans for frying food; baking tins and roasting tins for cooking food in the oven; and serving dishes made from glass or china. You could also find other kitchen implements such as a blender (= food processor) and kitchen scales (for measuring and weighing food). Often the top part of a floor level cupboard has a drawer, where various items are kept, such as cutlery (knives, forks and spoons); aluminium foil (metal paper), cling film (thin plastic wrap), freezer bags, and other kitchen items such as a bread knife, tin opener, corkscrew (to open bottles of wine), potato peeler (to take the skin off potatoes), a rolling pin (to roll out pastry) and so on.

On the top of the floor level cupboards you often find a worktop or work surface, where you can prepare food. These surfaces are sometimes made of marble, or hard wood, and they can be easily cleaned. Some people keep a toaster or microwave on the work surfaces, along with things they need frequently, such as oil, salt, or various sauces.

Most kitchens also contain a cooker with an oven and four rings, (although some modern cookers are split level, where the oven is separate from the rings), a fridge-freezer, and perhaps a dishwasher or even a washing machine. You'll probably find a kitchen sink, where you wash the plates and dishes, and larger kitchens also contain a kitchen table and chairs, so you can eat in the same room.

English bedroom vocabulary

English words connected with the bedroom.

Bedrooms come in all shapes and sizes. You can find bedrooms which contain just a single bed, or those which have a double bed (bed which is big enough for two people), or even twin beds (two single beds side by side). Some people choose to sleep in a futon (a Japanese bed which is low on the ground) and some people who like luxury might have a four-poster (a bed which has four posts - one in each corner - and from which you can hang curtains or mosquito nets). When children share a bedroom, they might sleep in bunk beds, where there is one bed on top of the other. The upper bunk is reached by a small ladder.

On your bed, you'll have at least one sheet (normally in cotton, but in a variety of colours or patterns), and you normally lie on top of this sheet. Some people also have a sheet over them, with blankets (made from wool) to keep them warm. Alternatively, you can replace the top sheet and blankets with a duvet (a warm, but lightweight quilt). You're likely to sleep with your head on a pillow, which is often filled with feathers. Pillows are normally put inside a cotton pillow case, and the duvet is also put inside a cotton duvet cover. If it gets really cold, you can also have a quilt or eiderdown over your blankets. Some people also have an electric blanket that they use to warm up the bed. In England, many people use a hot water bottle (a flat rubber bag that you fill with hot water then seal) to put into the bed to warm it up.

As well as a bed, you're likely to have other furniture in your bedroom, such as a chest of drawers (a piece of furniture with several drawers to put clothes in); a wardrobe, which is a piece of furniture with doors where you can hang shirts, trousers, or skirts and dresses on clothes hangers; and a bedside table, which is a small table next to the bed. On the bedside table, you might have a bedside light and an alarm clock. Some people also have a dressing table, which is a small table that you sit in front of, with a mirror to see your reflection in when you do your hair or make-up, and a couple of drawers. Other people might have their mirror on their chest of drawers, as well a hair brush and even a clothes brush (a special brush that you use to clean jackets and shirts).

Talking about your family

English Vocabulary for talking about your family.

Your family tree

Your closest relatives are your parents: your mother and father; and your siblings (brothers or sisters). If your mother or father is not an only child, you also have aunts and / or uncles. An aunt is the sister of your mother or father, while an uncle is the brother of your mother or father. Your female child is called your daughter, and your male child is your son.

If your aunts or uncles have children, they are your first cousins. (In English, the word cousin is used, whether the cousin is female or male.) Your female cousin is your mother (or father's) niece, while a male cousin is the nephew of your mother and father.

In-laws

When you marry, your husband (or wife's) family become your in-laws. The mother of your spouse (husband or wife) is your mother-in-law and his or her father becomes your father-in-law. The term in-law is also used to describe your relationship with the spouses of your siblings. So the husband of your sister becomes your brother-in-law, while the sister of your husband becomes your sister-in-law. If you are a woman, you become the daughter-in-law of your husband's parents, and if you are a man, you become the son-in-law of your wife's parents. The same term in-law is used for all generations. The husband of your aunt is still your mother's brother-in-law, for example.

Grandparents / grandchildren

The parents of your parents are your grandparents - grandmother and grandfather. You are their grandchildren - either a granddaughter or a grandson. If your grandparent has a sister, she is your great-aunt. If your grandparent has a brother, he is your great-uncle. (And you are either his or her great-niece or great-nephew.)

The mother of your grandmother or grandfather is your great-grandmother. The father is your great-grandfather. If you go back another generation, the grandmother of your grandmother / grandfather is your great-great-grandmother. The grandfather of your grandparent becomes your great-great-grandfather.

Second families

If your mother or father remarries, you can acquire a new family and set of relatives. For example, if your father marries a second wife, she becomes your step-mother. Any children she already has become your step-sisters or step-brothers.

If your mother or father remarries and has children, they become your half-brothers or half-sisters.

You might also hear people talking about their biological brother / sister etc, to mean a brother who is related by blood, rather than by marriage.

Types of family

nuclear family = mother, father and children: "The traditional British family unit is a nuclear family."

single-parent / one-parent family = a family which only has one parent (because the parents are divorced, or because one of the parents has died): "There are more and more single-parent families in the UK."

immediate family = your closest relatives: "Only immediate family members attended the funeral."

extended family = your entire family: "The wedding invitations were sent to the entire extended family."

close-knit family = a family where the members have close relationships with each other: "They are a close-knit family."

dysfunctional family = a family where the members have serious problems with each other: "He comes from a rather dysfunctional family."

blood relative = a relative connected to you by "blood" rather than through marriage: "She's not a blood relative, but we're still very close."

Expressions with family

family gathering = a meeting / celebration of family members: "There's a small family gathering next week."

family resemblance = where members of the family look / act similar: "You can see a distinct family resemblance between the father and the son."

to start a family = to start having children: "They want to wait a couple of years before starting a family."

to run in the family = a characteristic that is common among family members: "Baldness runs in his family."

to bring up / raise a family = to have and look after children: "It's difficult to raise a family on one income."

a family car = a car big enough to transport a family: "The Volvo Estate is a popular family car."

family-size = large quantity item: "We need to buy family-size packets of biscuits!"

family-friendly = a policy that favours families: "This hotel is family-friendly."

family doctor = a doctor who looks after general medical needs: "There are a number of good family doctors in this area."

family man = a man who prefers to spend his time with his family: "John is a family man."

family values = traditional ideas about what a family should be: "Some political parties often emphasise family values and the importance of marriage."

family name = surname: "What's your family name?"

Describing family relationships
Children often quarrel with each other, and these arguments - or squabbles - are often quickly resolved. In fact, sibling rivalry (the competition between brothers and sisters) is quite common.

More seriously, if arguments continue into adulthood, family feuds can develop where both sides can end up hating each other and even trying to hurt or destroy each other.

A person who no longer speaks to a family member is estranged from his / her family. Often estrangement is voluntary. However, if parents decide they no longer want anything to do with their children, they cut them off (= break off communiation), or even disinherit them. (Decide not to leave them anything when they die.)

Most people feel loyalty to their family, and will defend family members saying "He / She's family". There's also a saying "Blood's thicker than water" which means that your family ties are stronger than any other relationships.

Describing people in English

There are many ways to talk about physical appearance.


Age
My grandfather is quite old. In fact, as he has a pension, he is an old age pensioner, or a senior citizen.

His daughter, my aunt, is 55, and middle-aged. She has three sons. One is a young adult, at 24 years of age, and the other two are both teenagers. They are 16 and 17. My sister also has two children - one toddler who is a two-year old, and a baby who is 6 months old.

Build
People are built in all shapes and sizes. There are those who are fat and overweight. Some people are extremely overweight and are obese. Other people are naturally slim, but others look have absolutely no fat on them and are thin, or skinny.

Personally, I am stocky - small, but well-built. My father is tall and lean - with very little fat. My sister is short, but wiry - she is quite thin, but muscular. Both my brothers are athletic and well-proportioned. My mother looks like a 1940's film star. She is curvaceous, with an hour-glass figure.

My grandfather is fit for his age and takes plenty of exercise. He doesn't want all his muscles to get flabby.

Colouring
My sister is an English rose - she has fair hair and fair skin. She doesn't tan easily and has to be careful in the sun. My mother is blonde, also with a fair complexion. I am a red-head - with red hair. Like many other people with a pale complexion, I get freckles from the sun - small brown dots on my face and arms. In contrast, my father has dark-brown hair and he is quite dark-skinned. You are born with a colour - white or Caucasian, black or Asian. People whose parents are of different ethnic origin are mixed-race. Southern Europeans are sometimes described as Mediterranean.

Face
Faces, like build, vary a lot. Some people have oval faces - their foreheads are much wider than their chins. Other people have heart-shaped, square or round faces.

Features also vary. My grandfather has bushy eyebrows (he has lots of hair!), a hooked nose and high cheekbones. His eyes are large and set quite far apart. My mother has a broad nose, which she hates, as she prefers narrow noses. But she is lucky to have even or regular teeth. My sister corrected her crooked teeth by wearing a brace which straightened them. She has rosy cheeks, small ears and a snub nose, which goes up at the end.

I have long, curly hair, though my sister is the opposite, with short, straight hair. Her hair is fine and doesn't weigh very much, but mine is thick and heavy. My mother's hair is wavy - in between straight and curly. It's cut in a bob and she also has a short fringe, where it is cut horizontally across her forehead. My father is losing his hair - in fact he is going bald, which makes him very sad. My brother looks like he is going to lose his hair too - it is receding.

English words for emotions

The A-Z of English words that describe emotions.


A
angry: "She was angry with her boss for criticising her work."

annoyed: "I'm very annoyed with him. He hasn't returned any of my calls."

"She was annoyed by his comments."

appalled = very shocked: "They were appalled to hear that they would lose their jobs."

apprehensive = slightly worried: "I felt a little apprehensive before my interview."

ashamed: "How could you say such a thing? You should be ashamed of yourself!"

at the end of your tether = completely fed up: "The children have been misbehaving all day - I'm at the end of my tether."

B
bewildered = very confused: "He was bewildered by the choice of computers in the shop."

betrayed = when someone breaks the trust you have in them: "He betrayed my trust when he repeated my secret to everyone."

C
confused: "I'm sorry I forgot your birthday - I was confused about the dates."

confident = sure of your abilities: "I'm confident that we can find a solution to this problem."

cheated = when you don't get something that you think you deserve: "Of course I feel cheated - I should have won that competition."

cross = quite angry: "I was cross with him for not helping me, as he said he would."

D
depressed = very sad: "After he failed his English exam, he was depressed for a week."

delighted = very happy: "I'm delighted that I got the job. It's just what I always wanted."

down in the dumps = sad and fed up: "What's the matter with him? He's so down in the dumps these days."

disappointed: "She was disappointed by her son's poor results at school."

E
ecstatic = extremely happy: "When he asked her to marry him she was ecstatic."

excited: "I'm excited by the new opportunities that the internet brings."

emotional = you have strong feelings (happy or sad) and you cry: "When he heard the news, he became quite emotional."

envious = when you want something that someone else has: "I'm very envious of her happiness - I wish I was happy too."

embarrassed = slightly ashamed: "I felt so embarrassed that I went bright red."

F
furious =very angry: "I was furious with him for breaking my favourite vase."

frightened: "As a child she was frightened of the dark."

G
great = very good: "I feel great today!"

H
happy: "She was happy to hear the good news."

horrified = very shocked: "I'm horrified by the amount of violence on television today."

I
irritated = annoyed: "I get so irritated when he changes TV channels without asking me first."

intrigued = being so interested in something you have to find out more: "I'm intrigued to hear about your safari in Kenya."

J
jealous = envious: "She was jealous of her sister's new toy."

jaded = tired and having no interest: "After 10 years at this company, I just feel jaded."

K
keen: "I'm keen to see your new house - I've heard lots about it."

"I'm keen on keeping fit."

L
lazy: "I can't be bothered to do anything today - I feel really lazy!"

lucky: "I'm going to play the lottery - I feel lucky today!"

let down = disappointed: "When you didn't turn up to the meeting, I felt really let down."

M
maternal = feeling like a mother: "Looking at my sister's new baby made me feel really maternal."

N
nonplussed = so surprised that you don't know what to do next: "I was so nonplussed by his announcement that I couldn't say anything."

negative = when you can only see the disadvantages: "I feel very negative about my job - the pay is awful."

O
overwhelmed = so much emotion that you don't know what to say or do: "I was overwhelmed by the offer of promotion at work."

over the moon = delighted: "She was over the moon with her new bicycle and rode it every day for a whole year."

P
positive = opposite of negative - seeing the good side of something: "She's a very positive person and never lets anything get her down."

positive = very sure: "Are you sure that's what you want? Yes - I'm positive."

R
relaxed: "I was completely relaxed after I came back from holiday."

reluctant = when you don't want to do something: "I'm reluctant to buy a new car - the one we have is fine."

S
seething = extremely angry, but hiding it: "She was seething after her boss criticised her."

sad: "It makes me sad to see all those animals in cages at the zoo."

scared = frightened: "Are you scared of heights?"

stressed = being worried or anxious about something so you can't relax: "I feel really stressed at work - I need a break."

"He was stressed out by all the travelling in his job."

T
terrific = fantastic: "I feel terrific today!"

terrible = ill or tired: "I've got a blinding headache and I feel terrible."

terrified = very scared: "She's terrified of spiders and screams whenever she sees one."

tense = not relaxed: "You look a bit tense. Did you have a bad day at work?"

U
upset = angry or unhappy: "I'm sorry you're upset - I didn't mean to be rude."

unhappy = sad: "I was unhappy to hear that I hadn't got the job."

V
victimised = to feel you are the victim of someone or something: "My boss kept criticising me and not the others, so I felt quite victimised."

W
wonderful = great: "I felt wonderful after such a relaxing weekend."

English words that describe behaviour

An A-Z of English words and phrases that describe behaviour.

A
active = always doing something: "She's an active person and never wants to stay in."

aggressive = being angry or threatening: "He's aggressive and starts arguments."

ambitious = wanting to succeed: "He's ambitious and wants to lead the company."

argumentative = always arguing with people: "He won't accept what you say - he's argumentative and loves to disagree!"

arrogant = thinking you are better than anyone else: "He always behaves as if nobody else's opinion is important - "I find him very arrogant."

assertive = being confident, so people can't force you to do things you don't want to do: "It's important to be assertive at work."

B
bad-tempered = in a bad mood: "What's got into him lately? He's so bad-tempered."

big-headed = thinking you're very important or clever: "I've never met anyone so big-headed!"

bossy = telling people what to do all the time: "He's so bossy - he never lets me do things the way I want to do them."

C
careless = not taking care: "He's a careless driver - "I'm sure he'll have an accident."

caring = wanting to help people: "My boss is caring and often asks me how things are going."

catty = saying nasty or spiteful things about other people: "I know you don't like her, but calling her names is a bit catty."

cautious = being careful, so that you avoid mistakes: "He's cautious about investing money in the stock market."

charming = pleasant and likeable: "What a charming man!"

cheeky = being rude or disrespectful: "It was a bit cheeky of him to ask for more money."

clever = intelligent: "She's a clever student and picks things up quickly."

conceited = thinking you're very clever, or better than others: "He's so conceited - he thinks everyone should admire him."

conscientious = doing something carefully, because you want to do it well: "She's a conscientious student and always does her homework."

considerate = thinking and caring about others: "My neighbour brought me flowers when I was in hospital - he's very considerate." ("That was considerate of him.")

coy = pretending to be shy so that you don't have to give information: "He's very coy about his qualifications - maybe he doesn't have any."

creative = someone who can make or design things, or can think of solutions to a problem: "She's creative and artistic."

curious = wanting to know things: "I'm curious to find out what you think of the situation."

D
deceitful = trying to make people think something, so that you get what you want: "He lied to get this job - he's so deceitful."

docile = quiet and submissive: "She's a docile child and always does what she's told."

dogmatic = wanting others to accept your ideas without discussion: "He's a dogmatic politician and always thinks he's right."

domineering = trying to control other people: "He's loud and domineering in the office - it's difficult to get him to listen to us."

E
enthusiastic = having a lot of interest in something: "He's an enthusiastic supporter of equal rights."

excitable = someone who easily gets excited: "He gets very excitable about politics - it's one of his passions in life."

extroverted = outgoing and lively: "She's extroverted and loves going out with people."

F
faithful = being loyal to someone or something: "She's a faithful friend."

fickle = changing your mind and being unpredictable: "Politicians can be fickle when it suits them!"

flaky = slightly unstable and unreliable: "She's a little flaky at times, but otherwise she's a good worker."

full of himself = acting proud of yourself: "He was full of himself after he got the promotion - it got annoying after a while."

funny = making other people laugh: "He can be extremely funny when he's in the mood."

fussy = only liking certain things: "She's fussy about what she wears."

G
good-natured = kind and thoughtful: "She's good-natured and always tries to help."

grumpy = someone who tends to be in a bad mood: "He's always grumpy in the morning and never says 'hello'."

H
happy-go-lucky = not worrying about what might happen in the future: "He's a bit happy-go-lucky and doesn't think about the future."

I
impulsive = doing things without thinking first: "If he sees something he likes, he just buys it - he can be so impulsive at times!"

inconsiderate = not considering other people or their feelings: "It was a little inconsiderate of him not to give you a get-well card."

introverted = opposite of extroverted: "He was introverted as a teenager, but became more confident as he got older."

inventive = able to think up new ideas: "As head of Marketing, he can often think of inventive ways to keep his customers happy."

irritating = annoying others: "He can be very irritating to work with."

J
jokey = making jokes: "You're in a jokey mood today, but we've got work to do!"

jolly = happy and cheerful: "It was the weekend and everyone was in a jolly mood."

K
kind = thoughtful and caring: "My neighbour is kind - she looked after my cat when I was on holiday."

L
loud-mouthed = someone who talks a lot and often says offensive things: "Don't worry about what he said - he's loud-mouthed at times."

loyal = someone who is faithful and stands by you: "His colleagues were loyal to him when he was having problems with his boss."

M
manic = behaving in a slightly crazy way: "We're a bit manic at the moment - we're rushing to finish the work before our deadline."

manipulative = trying to get people to do what you want, by influencing or deceiving them: "She's very manipulative when she wants something."

moody = having unpredictable moods: "Some people think he's moody - you never know if he's happy or grumpy."

N
nervous = uncomfortable with a situation: "I'm always nervous before an exam."

O
old-fashioned = behaving or thinking in a way that isn't modern: "He's a bit old-fashioned and thinks women shouldn't work."

opinionated = having strong opinions: "He's opinionated and dogmatic - the last person you want to negotiate with."

P
passive = not assertive - doing what other people want you to do without arguing: "He's passive at work, but domineering at home."

perfectionnist = someone who wants perfection: "Her boss is a perfectionnist - no spelling mistakes are allowed."

persuasive = being able to persuade people to do things or to accept your ideas: "He's a persuasive talker."

picky = only liking certain things or people: "She's picky about her friends."

playful = someone who likes to play and have fun: "You're in a playful mood today!"

pleasant = nice and polite: "The bank manager was pleasant to me today."

polite = showing good manners: "She's polite and never forgets to say 'please' or 'thank you'."

pragmatic = being practical and aware of your limitations: "She's pragmatic at work and only does what she can."

Q
quick-tempered = getting angry quickly: "He was quick-tempered when he was young, but he's more relaxed now."

R
reserved = keeping your ideas and thoughts to yourself: "He's reserved, but polite."

rude = impolite: "He's very rude and never says 'please' or 'thank you'."

S
scatter-brained / scatty = someone who often forgets things: "Don't you remember where you put your wallet? You're so scatter-brained!"

serious = not light-hearted: "He's a serious student and always does his homework."

shy = quiet, because you are not very confident: "He's so shy and hates saying anything to people he doesn't know."

sincere = saying what you believe (opposite of insincere): "He's sincere in his beliefs."

slapdash = doing your work quickly and carelessly: "He's got a very slapdash attitude - I doubt he'll ever become a lawyer."

slimy = trying to get what you want by being over-friendly: "That man is so slimy - he makes me feel sick!"

sly = doing things in a secretive way: "You never know what he's up to - he's sly and manipulative."

spiteful = trying to hurt other people because you didn't get what you wanted: "If she doesn't get what she wants, she can be quite spiteful."

T
thoughtful = someone who thinks a lot: "He's a thoughtful person and won't do anything unless he has considered the consequences."

thoughtless = not thinking about people or the consequences of your actions: "I'm sure he didn't mean to be rude - he can be thoughtless at times."

trustworthy = someone you can trust: "My accountant is really trustworthy."

V
volatile quickly changing moods: "He's easily excitable and pretty volatile."

W
witty = being able to make other people laugh by what you say: "He's witty and charming - the perfect person to invite to a party."

Marriage and wedding vocabulary

It all starts with a proposal. Traditionally the man goes down on one knee to pop the question.

If he receives a "yes", the couple are engaged. It is customary for the man to buy his fiancee an engagement ring, most commonly a diamond ring. Engagements can last for years, and if neither of the couple breaks off the engagement, the next step is marriage.

Planning the wedding
Most weddings in the UK take the form of either a civil ceremony (conducted at the Registry Office) or a traditional white wedding, held in a church. (There are other ceremonies for different religions.) If the couple chooses a church service, the planning can become quite complex. The church must be booked, the service has to be chosen, flowers arranged and so on. Other arrangements (for both traditional and civil) are to draw up a guest list, send out invitations, book a reception venue (for after the ceremony), choose bridesmaids (the girls who traditionally accompany the bride in the church) and the best man (the bridegroom's friend who accompanies him to the ceremony), buy the wedding dress, arrange a honeymoon (the holiday after the wedding), compile a wedding list (a list of presents that guests can choose to buy the couple) and of course, to select the wedding ring(s).

The big day
The groom and best man arrive at the church first, and then the guests arrive. Last to arrive is the bride, normally dressed in a long white wedding dress with a train (material from the dress that covers the floor behind her), her face covered in a veil, carrying a bouquet of flowers, and accompanied by a couple of bridesmaids in matching dresses. Usually the bride's father walks her down the aisle until they reach the priest / vicar at the altar. The church organ plays the Wedding March, and the guests rise to their feet to watch the procession. Once they reach the altar, the bride stands with the groom, and the service begins. The service lasts for about half an hour, and contains readings (extracts from the Bible) and a couple of hymns (religious songs). The priest always asks if there are any objections to the marriage (someone can speak or forever hold their peace = never have the opportunity again to object), and at the end of the service, the couple exchange rings and are proclaimed "man and wife". At that point, the groom is allowed to kiss his wife. The guests leave and the couple then sign the marriage register. When they come out of the church, the guests often throw confetti(small pieces of coloured paper), and the photographer takes various formal photographs.

Next in the big day is the reception, which is often a formal lunch in a hotel. After lunch there are various speeches. The bride's father normally gives a speech, then the best man gives a speech (which is often a funny speech designed to embarrass the groom), and the bridegroom and / or the bride give a short speech to thank their guests.

Some couples also arrange an evening reception, and hire a disco or band to play music for their friends.

At the end of the day, the happy couple traditionally leave on honeymoon.

Other wedding vocabulary
pre-wedding nerves = when you are nervous before the wedding

wedding bells = the traditional tune that the church bells play as the couple leave the church

wedding vows = the promises that the bride and groom make to each other during the ceremony. Some of these vows could be to love each other "until death do us part" and to love "for richer or poorer, for better or worse, in sickness and in good health".

wedding cake = a traditional cake with three "tiers" eaten at the end of the wedding meal

English baby vocabulary

How to talk about pregnancy and babies in English.

My friend got pregnant / conceived in April and her baby was born in January.

She waited until the second trimester (after three months) to tell people, as by then there is less risk of losing the baby / having a miscarriage. During the pregnancy she had terrible morning sickness and she also had cravings (a strong desire to eat something) for cheese and pickle sandwiches.

The birth itself was uncomplicated. She went into labour at midnight, and the baby was born at 7 a.m. She didn't feel too much pain and didn't need an epidural. Instead, she was on drips to make the contractions come a little quicker. Her midwife (special nurse who follows a woman throughout pregnancy) was with her during the birth, just to make sure that everything went well. Luckily, it was a normal delivery and she didn't need a Caesarean section (operation). The doctor cut the cord and put the baby on her stomach. He said "Congratulations! It's a healthy baby girl!"

She and her husband prepared their house before she went into hospital. They decorated the nursery. They also had to buy some baby equipment, such as a baby bath, a changing mat (on which they will change the baby's nappies), a carry cot (so they can carry the baby around), a cot (for the baby to sleep in), a mobile (to hang over the cot so that the baby can see moving shapes) and more teddy bears than any baby can surely need. Friends have bought them baby clothes already, so they are as ready as they can be for their new baby.

English medical vocabulary

English words and phrases connected with injury.

Boil = infected swelling with liquid inside it: "You'll need to go to the doctor to have that boil lanced." (lance - puncture and clean)

Lump = swelling: "I have a strange lump on my arm. I wonder what caused it."

Rash = allergic reaction which makes your skin go red: "When she used the soap her skin came out in a rash."

Scab = dry skin that forms over a cut: "Don't pick at your scab - you might make it bleed."

Spot = red mark on the skin (much smaller than a boil): "When he was a teenager he had a lot of spots."

Swelling = an irritation or infection that makes the skin rise: "After the wasp stung her, she had a swelling on her leg for days."

These words can be used as nouns and verbs

Bruise = when the skin goes blue and yellow: "She fell down the stairs and bruised her arm."
"He has a bruise just under his eye."

Bump = when you hit yourself and get a slight swelling:
"Ow! I bumped my head on the desk!"
"It's only a little bump - nothing serious."

Cut = when something sharp breaks your skin and you bleed: "He cut himself badly on the bread knife."
"Fortunately, nobody was seriously injured in the accident. There were only a few cuts and bruises."
"She got a nasty cut on her hand while she was diving."

Gash = deep cut: "He gashed his hand badly on a piece of broken glass."
"That's a nasty gash. You might need stitches."

Graze = slight cut - not enough to bleed much: "When she was little, she was always grazing her knee."
"I got a small graze on my hand when I fell onto some gravel."

Itch = when a part of your body makes you want to scratch it: "My eyes are itching - this atmosphere is too smoky for me."
"I've got a terrible itch where the mosquito bit me. "

Scratch = like a graze, but more painful: "The cat scratched me - it stings a little."
"He was picking berries and got a couple of scratches from the thorns."

Sprain = twist a part of your body: "She sprained her ankle when she slipped on the ice."
"My ankle looks swollen, but it's only a minor sprain."

English chemist vocabulary

In England, high-street chemists stock a huge range of toiletries (items for personal hygiene), baby products, cosmetics, perfumes and medicines. Dispensing chemists also fill prescriptions (given to you by your doctor) and some even develop films for you.

Baby care
Many people buy nappies (diapers) for their babies at chemists. Along with the nappies are other products for babies, such as nappy cream, cotton wool buds (lengths of plastic tipped with soft cotton to clean a baby's ears, for example), baby wipes (to help clean a baby) and so on.

Hair care
Chemists also stock a range of hair products. You can buy shampoo and conditioner (to wash your hair) and products to colour hair. For styling your hair you can buy gel or mousse, which act a bit like glue to keep your hair in a particular style. You can also buy hair brushes or combs, to make your hair neat, and hair grips and hair slides, which are plastic objects that keep your hair in place.

Personal hygiene
There's normally a wide selection of personal hygiene products. Many English people like to soak in a long, hot bath, and so there's a huge market in bath oils, bath salts or bubble bath - all ways to add nice smells to your bath! You can also buy nail scissors and emery boards (to file your nails) and pumice stone, to rub away dry skin from your feet. For oral hygiene, you can buy toothbrushes, toothpaste and dental floss, which is like string that you use to clean between your teeth. You can also buy face and body creams, moisturiser (cream to prevent your skin from going dry), soap and deodorant. Other items you can find in this section of the chemist are razors, to shave hair from your body, shaving foam; and feminine hygiene products, such as tampons and sanitary towels.

Make up
If you are looking for cosmetics or make-up, you can find eye-liner (or kohl), mascara (for your eyelashes) and eye-shadow, which is coloured powder to put on your eyelids. You can also buy foundation (a cream to put on your face to give an even surface), blusher (to add colour to your cheeks), lipstick (which adds colour to your lips), and lip-gloss which adds shine to your lips. To colour your nails you can use nail polish, also known as nail varnish

English food vocabulary

Words and phrases to help you talk about food in English.

How food is cooked
boiled - cooked in boiling water

steamed - cooked over a saucepan of boiling water

fried / sauteed - cooked in oil in a frying pan

stir-fried - fried fast in hot oil

pan-fried - fried in a frying pan

roasted - cooked in oil in the oven

grilled - cooked under a grill

baked - cooked in the oven

stewed - cooked for a long time on a low heat

casseroled - cooked slowly in juices

Types of food
meat = lamb, pork or beef

poultry = chicken, turkey, goose, duck

game = rabbit, hare, partridge, pheasant

fish = salt water fish / sea fish, fresh water fish

seafood = prawns, shrimps, lobster, scallops, mussels, crab

vegetables

fruit

Dishes
starter / hors d'oeuvre / appetiser

main course

dessert / pudding

English vocabulary for the beach

What do you take with you onto the beach?

You will probably need to protect yourself against the sun's rays, so high-factor suncream or sunblock will be useful. Sunglasses and a sun hat are also recommended.

Some people sit under parasols, which are like large umbrellas. On English beaches, where the weather is more unpredictable, a wind-break (piece of fabric stretched between wooden poles) will keep the wind away!

What do you wear to sunbathe, or to get a tan? A bikini (or two-piece) for women, or a swimming costume. Men will probably wear swimming trunks. Sandals or flip-flops are useful for walking on the sand. If your skin is delicate, you might need to cover up with a sarong - a long piece of cotton you wrap around your waist to cover your legs - a T shirt or a pair of shorts. (Short trousers.)

You can sit on a deckchair, or recline on a sun-lounger. Some people even lie on an inflatable mattress in the sea - a lilo. Or you can lie out on a towel under the sun to catch as many rays as possible.

Finally, entertainment. Children like buckets and spades so they can build sandcastles. Personally, I prefer to read a good book on the beach. But some people take along beach balls, or frisbees (plastic discs) to throw to each other. The more sporty play volley ball or badminton. My father used to take along the radio to listen to the cricket scores - very English! Nowadays, people take along their walkman or ghetto blaster to listen to music. Perhaps the most common sound nowadays, though, is mobile phones. Aaaagh!

Office vocabulary

Words to help you describe objects in an office.


Where you store things
Perhaps you have a tall metal cupboard in your office with three or four drawers to put files and correspondence. This is a filing cabinet. Other people have drawers in their desk or portable drawers (drawers on wheels) in their offices.

In your filing cabinets you usually have hanging files, where you can put loose correspondence. If you want to put correspondence together, you can use folders or plastic wallets. You can also put papers in a folder and put the folder on a bookshelf.

You can also store small things on your desk. For example, perhaps you put pens in a pen holder or in a container. You might even have a desk tidy with different components for pens, rubber bands, erasers and so on.

How you attach things
To stick things together, you can use one-sided sticky tape, known in England as 'sellotape' but not as 'Scotch', which is a type of whisky! You can use a stronger type of sellotape for cardboard boxes and this is called masking tape. Or you could use glue - a sticky liquid that comes out of a bottle to stick things together.

You can attach paper with a paperclip, which is made of metal or plastic. A paperclip is the icon you can see in your email program when you want to send an attachment.

If you want to attach paper more permanently, you can use a stapler (which contains staples) to staple the pieces together. A staple is a small, sharp metal bar which has two ends that curl through the bottom sheet of paper to hold all the pieces together.

How you cut things
You can use a pair of scissors to cut paper. If you want to make two holes in the left hand margin of paper so that you can put the paper in a file, you can use a hole-punch. Line up the hole-punch on the paper, push down and you will get two circular holes in the paper.

If you want to cut something thicker than paper, you will probably need a knife. If you want to cut many pieces of paper together, you can also use a guillotine. This is a flat piece of metal with a sharp blade along one side. You lift the blade then bring it down onto the paper. (It's named after the implement used in the French Revolution.)

Office equipment
You probably have access to a printer (which needs ink cartridges), a photocopier (which needs toner), a fax machine and maybe even an overhead projector, also known as an OHP. An OHP is useful if you want to present information and project text or images onto a screen at the front of a room.

You might also have a whiteboard (to write on using whiteboard markers) or a flipchart. A flipchart is a stand with very large pieces of paper which you can write on, then flip over, to get the next piece of blank paper.

You might have a place in the office where you can leave messages and notices for other people. This is called a notice board and you need to use drawing pins to attach your notice to the board

Scenery vocabulary

How to describe the landscape.


The coast
Often at the edge of the sea there are cliffs (high mountains), which give a great view over the sea. But they can also be dangerous, especially if they are eroded, when rocks and earth fall away into the sea. Most people prefer sandy beaches rather than pebble beaches (beaches with small stones). The coastline can be straignt, or it can have bays which are often semi-circular in shape.

Mountains
Mountain ranges are spectacular as you can often see snow-capped peaks against the skyline. From the top of a mountain (the summit or the peak), there are breathtaking views. Not much grows on mountains, as generally the terrain (ground) is rocky, but the air is often pure. However, the valleys (low areas encircled by the mountains) are more fertile.

Inland
From the foothills of the mountains (the small hills nearest mountains), the scenery inland tends to be less dramatic with rolling hills and open countryside. You can find more farmland, but also forests or woods (smaller forests). The land is generally irrigated by rivers or lakes (areas of water which are enclosed) and streams (narrow paths of water).

In some countries, there are vast areas of open, flat land called plains (or prairies) which are used to grow various crops such as wheat (the grain used to make flour for bread.)

English words for crime and punishment

There are many words in English dealing with crime, the courts and punishment.

a - acquit / acquittal
acquit = to decide that someone is not guilty of a crime: "All the defendants were acquitted."

b - barrister, bail
barrister = a lawyer who is trained to defend or prosecute in a court: "The barrister asked many difficult questions."

bail = a sum of money that can be paid in some situations to allow someone accused of a crime to stay out of prison before the court case: "He won't get bail - he's extremely violent."

c - court, custody, conviction, cross-examination
court = the place where a crime is discussed and judged: "He's in court again - this is the second time this year!"

a court case = what happens in a court: "This is an interesting court case, as many people are involved."

in custody = when the police keep someone in prison before the person goes to court: "He's being kept in custody until the trial begins."

custodial sentence = when someone is sent to prison for a crime: "Custodial sentences are getting shorter."

conviction = when someone is found guilty of a crime: "He had a string of convictions going back twenty years."

cross-examination = when what someone says is questioned by the barrister representing the other side: "Under cross-examination, her evidence showed some inconsistencies."

d - defend, defendant
to defend - to argue the innocence of the person who is accused of a crime (the defendant):"The barrister defending him is going to have a hard time."

e - evidence
evidence = information that proves someone is guilty: "The forensic evidence shows that he committed the murder."

f - fine
fine = a sum of money that is paid as a punishment for a minor crime: "He got a small fine for speeding."

g - guilty
find someone guilty = when it is decided that someone has committed a crime: "He was found guilty of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment."

h - hearsay
hearsay = when you hear something from someone, but you don't know if it is true or not: "Although the police are suspicious, they can't prosecute him on what the neighbours think - it's all hearsay."

i - illegal
illegal = against the law: "The brothers carried out an illegal trade in rare and endangered animals."

j - judge, jury, justice
judge = a person who is in control of a court. The judge makes sure that both sides of the argument are heard, sums up or explains things to the jury, if necessary, and passes sentence if the defendant is found guilty. "She's a well-respected judge."

jury = 12 citizens who are selected at random to decide whether someone is guilty or not in a criminal trial: "I have to do jury service next month and I'm a little nervous." "The jury took five hours to find him not guilty."

justice = how people are judged: "The British justice system is unlike other European systems."

l - life sentence
life sentence = when someone guilty of murder or other serious crimes is sent to prison for "life": "He's currently serving two life sentences for murder."

m - magistrate, magistrate's court
magistrate = someone who judges less serious crimes: "She was in the magistrate's court for shoplifting."

n - not guilty
not guilty = when someone is found to be innocent of a crime: "The jury found her not guilty."

o - Old Bailey
Old Bailey - famous law courts in London, where serious crimes are tried: "The public gallery at the Old Bailey is a good place to witness the British justice system."

p - prosecution, parole, plea, plaintiff
prosecution = the lawyers arguing against the defendant: "The doctor was a witness for the prosecution."

parole = when a convicted criminal is allowed out of prison before the end of the sentence: "He was sentenced to ten years, but with parole, he'll serve seven years at the most." "She's on parole."

plea = a statement in court saying whether a person is guilty or not: "The defendant entered a plea of not guilty."

plaintiff = someone who takes a person to court and brings a legal action against them: "The plaintiff stated that the defendant had deliberately destroyed his fence."

q - QC
QC (Queen's Counsel) = a senior barrister.

r - diminished responsibility
diminished responsibility = when someone cannot be held responsible for a crime, because they are mentally ill: "A plea of diminished responsibility was accepted."

s - statement, sentence
statement = something that a person says is true and which is officially written down: "In your statement to the police, you said that you had left the party at 11 pm."

sentence = the punishment that a judge gives someone who is guilty of a crime: "People are no longer sentenced to death in the UK."

t - trial
trial = the court process which decides if someone is guilty or not: "The murder trial is being reported in all the newspapers."

u - unsafe
unsafe conviction = when someone has been found guilty because the evidence was wrong or the witnesses didn't tell the truth: "The judge ruled the convictions unsafe and they were released from prison."

v - victim, verdict
victim = the person who has the crime committed against him or her: "The murder victim was aged between 25 and 30."

verdict = what the jury decides: "The jury returned a verdict of not guilty."

w - witness
witness = someone who sees a crime being committed: "The police are appealing for witnesses to come forward."

English euphemisms

Some subjects are considered personal, sensitive or taboo in English. For this reason, people avoid mentioning them by name and instead use a "euphemism" or humorous expression to refer to them. Here are some common euphemisms in English.


To refer to death
pass away: "Her uncle passed away last year."
fight a long battle with: "He fought a long battle with cancer."

Humorous expressions to refer to death


meet your maker: "He's gone to meet his maker."
six feet under: "I won't worry about money When I'm six feet under."
pushing up daisies: "Last I heard about him, he's pushing up daisies."
in your / his / my box: "When I'm in my box you can argue all you like about the inheritance."
snuff it: "I've heard that poor old Ernie has snuffed it."
popped his clogs: "Harold popped his clogs last year."
kick the bucket: "So Joe has finally kicked the bucket."

Animal euthanasia
put down: "We had to put our cat down as she was very ill."
put an end to its suffering: "We put an end to her suffering."

To refer to the bathroom
restroom: "Can I use the restroom?"
Where can I wash my hands?

public conveniences: "Are there any public conveniences nearby?"
ladies / gents: "The ladies and gents are down the corridor on your right."
Can I use your bathroom?


Humorous expressions to refer to the bathroom


the bog: "He's in the bog."
the smallest room of the house: "I'd like to pay a visit to the smallest room of the house."
powder my nose: "Where can I powder my nose?"
see a man about a dog: "He's gone to see a man about a dog."

Other themes
Unemployment


between jobs: "Steve is between jobs at the moment."
a resting actor: "Harry's a resting actor." (Only use for unemployed actors.)

Pregnancy


in the family way: "She was in the family way, so they got married."
have a bun in the oven: "Have you heard that Katy has a bun in the oven?"

Drunk


tired and emotional: "The newspaper said the president was tired and emotional."
have a bit too much to drink: "He had a bit too much to drink last night."
to be a bit worse for wear: "He was a bit worse for wear by the time he came home."
to have over-indulged: "I think he over-indulged in the free beer at the party."

Lying
economical with the truth: "The boss is known for being economical with the truth."

Arguments


full and frank discussion: "The directors had a full and frank discussion in the meeting."
have words with someone: "Those two have had words."

Being poor


be disadvantaged: "The government is introducing new schemes to help the disadvantaged."
financially embarrassed: "I'm afraid I can't come to the restaurant with you. I'm financially embarrassed at the moment."

How to use "make" and "do" in English

It can be difficult to know when to use "make" and when to use "do". Here are some tips to help you make the right choice.

We use "make" for more creative activities:

"She makes her own clothes."

"He made a beautiful hat for the wedding."

We also use "make" to describe functions of speech - what we are doing when we speak:

You make
… an offer (I'll pay you $500 for your car)
… an appointment (Can we meet at 9 am?)
… an arrangement (Let's meet at the station.)
… a promise (I'll help you with this photocopying.)
… a threat (If you do that again, I'll tell him.)
… a compromise
… a suggestion
… a promise
… a mistake
… a decision
… a point
… a complaint
… an excuse

There are also some "fixed expressions" with "make":

"They made friends when they were at primary school."

"He made fun of her new hairstyle."

Other expressions are:

… make a fuss
… make a fortune
… make money
… make a profit / a loss
… make a journey
… make an effort
… make progress
… make a mess
… make a telephone call
… make a choice

One expression that uses either "do" or "make" is:
make a deal / do a deal (I'll do it if you help me.)

Using do

We use "do" to refer to jobs, or responsibilties. These are often routine things, which do not involve much creativity or fun:

"I do the shopping once a week."

"He does the gardening every weekend."

"We have to do a lot of work on the house."

You also do:
… your homework
… the housework
… a job
… the paperwork
… an exam

There are some fixed expressions that you can learn which use "do":

"She does a lot of good in the community."

"This chemical can do a lot of harm."

"She always does favours for her colleagues." (Do someone a favour - help someone)

Other expressions are:

… do something well / badly
… do your best
… do something right / wrong
… do the minimum / the maximum
… do damage

Date and time vocabulary

Here are some ways to talk about dates in the calendar.

Today is Thursday, 8th.

In a day or two (Friday 9th, or Saturday 10th - perhaps even Sunday 11th).

Sometime next week (any time from Monday 12th to Sunday 18th).

In a fortnight (Thursday 22nd).

In two weeks' time (Thursday 22nd).

Two weeks today (Thursday 22nd).

In two weeks from now (Thursday 22nd).

In a week tomorrow (Friday 16th).

This time next week (Thursday 15th).

A week ago (Thursday 1st).

For the time being (from now until further notice).

Other time expressions

from time to time = occasionally: "I see him from time to time."

time and time again = repeatedly: "She's told the children time and time again to be careful of the road."

on time = at the right time: "She's always on time for work."

in time = before the deadline: "They bought him a card in time for his birthday."

at times = sometimes: "At times she felt that nobody understood her problem."

time out = take a break: "OK, time out - let's come back to this later."

English two-word phrases

In spoken English, we often use two-word phrases, such as "bye-bye". Here are some of the more common two word phrases.

so-so = OK: "How was the meeting?" "So-so - it was nice to see everyone, but we didn't get anything decided."

on-off = not constant: "They have a very on-off relationship."

love-hate = having feelings for someone / something which swing from love to hate: "I have a bit of a love-hate relationship with my car."

mish-mash = when things are combined together and so appear untidy: "The new policy is a bit of a mish-mash of the last two policies we've had."

riff-raff = quite a 'snobby' expression to describe people you think are lower in class than you: "Lets send out invitations for the party. We don't want the town's riff-raff turning up and eating all the food."

chit-chat = small talk or unimportant conversation: "He asked us to stop our chit-chat and get on with our work."

knick-knack = an ornament: "She's got a lot of knick-knacks - I'm always afraid I'm going to break one."

ship-shape = everything in its right place: "I want to leave the place ship-shape when we go on holiday."

zig-zag = diagonally: "He lost control of the car and it zig-zagged across the road."

ding-dong = an argument: "They've had a bit of a ding-dong and they're not talking to each other at the moment."

higgledy-piggledy = in a mess: "That bookshelf is all higgledy-piggledy!"

wishy-washy = weak opinion, argument or person: "His argument is a bit wishy-washy - I don't get the impression that he really knows what he wants to think."

easy-peasey = something that children often say to emphasise how easy something is: "This program is easy-peasey - I understood it in half an hour!"

flip-flops = rubber sandals with a thong that goes between your big and second toe: "I lived in my flip-flops when I was staying on the beach."

see-saw = something that goes up and down (like the piece of wood in a playground - a child sits on each end and these ends go up an down): "The English pound has see-sawed against the American dollar for the last two weeks."

English three-word phrases

Three word expressions are common in English. Practising them and using them when you speak will help you sound more natural.

Here are ten common English expressions, along with an explanation and example sentence.

Black and white
Dos and don'ts
Haves and have nots
Ins and outs
Kiss and tell
Odds and ends
P's and Q's
Pros and cons
Rights and wrongs
Tried and tested

black and white = something which is extremely clear: "He told her in black and white that she couldn't leave the house while he was out."

dos and don'ts = the rules: "There are various do's and don'ts about driving in the UK."

haves and have nots = people who are rich and those who are not: "In London you can find the haves and have nots of the population."

ins and outs = the details: "I don't know the ins and outs of the situation, so I can't really advise you."

kiss and tell = when someone sells a story of themselves and a famous person: "The British tabloids are famous for publishing kiss and tell stories."

odds and ends = small pieces of various items: "She made a stew with the odds and ends she found in the fridge."

P's and Q's = manners (such as please and thank you): "Mind your P's and Q's when you visit them!"

pros and cons = advantages and disadvantages: "There are a few pros and cons that we should consider before buying a new house."

rights and wrongs = all the good points and bad points of a situation: "Regardless of the rights and wrongs of company policy, you need to give a month's notice."

tried and tested = something which has been well tested: "Using salt is a tried and tested way of getting red wine out of a carpet."

Here are ten more expressions:


Ups and downs
Come and go
Back and forth
Dribs and drabs
Said and done
Cat and mouse
Trial and error
Flesh and blood
Down and out
By and large


ups and downs = very good times and very bad times: "They have a lot of ups and downs in their relationship."

come and go = use somewhere as your base: "Feel free to come and go as you please!"

back and forth = not to stay still, but to keep travelling between two places: "I'm so glad I'm moving. I was getting sick of going back and forth every day. Now my journey to work will be a lot quicker."

dribs and drabs = not a steady amount of something: "The marathon runners finished in dribs and drabs."

said and done = to have the final word on something: "When it's all said and done, the new reception area is going to be a credit to the company."

cat and mouse = doing something in the same way that a cat plays with a mouse: "The guerillas played a cat and mouse game with the much better-equipped army."

trial and error = to do something new by making experiments and occasionally failing: "The new computer system has been installed. But it's a bit trial and error at the moment - nobody really knows how to use it."

flesh and blood = your family: "I have to help him if I can - he's my flesh and blood."

down and out = someone who has no money at all who has to live on the street: "There are too many young down and outs in London."

by and large = generally: "By and large, our customers prefer good service to low prices."

And a further ten expressions:

Up and running = in operation: "The new company is now up and running."

Noughts and crosses = a game where you take it in turns to put your symbol (either a nought or a cross) into one of nine spaces. The idea is to have a row of either three noughts or three crosses, but your opponent tries to block you. The game looks like this:

O X O
X O X
X O X

Bring and buy = a fair where people try to raise money for a cause by bringing something that other people might want to buy: "I'm making a cake for the school's bring and buy next week."

Hide and seek = a children's game where one child hides and the others try to find him / her: "Someone's been playing hide and seek with the TV remote control again!"

Around and about = a vague phrase to avoid saying where you have been exactly: "Where have you been - I've been worried!"
"Oh, around and about, you know."

To and fro = another way of saying "back and forth": "I'm exhausted - I've been going to and fro all week!"

Over and out = something you say to show you have come to the end of your message: "The last thing they heard from the pilot was 'over and out'."

Done and dusted = properly finished: "Well, that's this project done and dusted. We need a holiday now."

Dead and buried = something that will not happen: "That idea is now dead and buried - the Executive Committee decided some time ago to go with another proposal."

Wine and dine = to entertain someone lavishly: "He's well-known for wining and dining his business partners."

Bread and butter = your main source of income, or the most important issue: "Health and education are the bread and butter issues facing the UK government."

Spick and span = very tidy and clean: "Her house is spick and span at all times."

Wheel and deal = to make deals when buying and selling things: "If you need a new car, try speaking to John. He's a bit of a wheeler and dealer!"

Word building

English is a very flexible language and you can build on your vocabulary to make new words.
One way of doing this is to add prefixes (such as dis, pre or co) before the word.

Here's a list of common prefixes with their meanings and some examples.

anti (= against)
antibodies, anti-social

auto (self)
autonomous, autobiography, automobile

bi (= two)
bicycle

co (= with)
cooperate, coordinate

contra (= against)
contradict, contravene

de (= remove)
deregulate, deselect

dis (= not)
disappear

il (= not)
illegal

im (= not)
immaterial, immature

inter (= between)
international

mis(= badly/wrongly)
misinform, misbehave, misunderstand

multi (= many)
multinational

non (= opposite)
non-profit

out (= more than)
outperform, outdone

over (= too much)
oversleep, overwork

post (= after)
postpone, postnatal

pre (= before)
predict

re (= again)
rewrite, relive

sub (= under)
submarine

super (= higher/improved)
supermarket

trans (= across)
transatlantic

uni (= one)
uniform

under (= not enough)
underpaid, underfed

Word Endings
You can also make new words from the words you already know by using different endings. For example, "The person who employs me has a fast car". You can make this sentence simpler, by replacing "the person who employs me" with "my employer". This gives you "My employer has a fast car."

In English you can make nouns from verbs (to employ gives employer and employee). You can also make verbs from nouns or adjectives: government gives to govern, modern gives to modernise and so on. Learning what endings you can put on words means you can expand your vocabulary and say what you mean more easily.

Here are some common word endings:

Nouns
-er /- or: a person who does something
adviser / advisor, teacher, learner

-ian
optician, mathematician

-ment: result of action
improvement, advancement

-ism: name of system or belief
realism, optimism

-ist: the person who believes in the system
realist, optimist

-ion
confusion, apparition

-ness
happiness

-ship
leadership

-ence / ance
permanence, appearance

-acy
lunacy

-age
marriage

-ity
annuity

-y
photography

-cy
fluency

Verbs
-ify
falsify, modify

-ise
modernise

Adjectives
-ic
idiotic, periodic

-ful
awful, wonderful

-able / ible
comfortable, terrible

-proof / resistant
waterproof, childproof, fireproof

-free
alcohol free beer, nuclear free zone

-less: without
hopeless, childless

American and British vocabulary

There are differences between British and American English - but there are also regional differences in British and American dialects. If you spot something that you think is strange, or if you have an alternative for any of the words, please let us know!

In the list below, the first expression is always British English.

Houses
Washing up liquid = Dish soap

Hoover = Vacuum cleaner

Washing powder = Laundry soap

Clothes peg = Clothes pin

Fridge = Fridge / Refrigerator

Living room / lounge = Living room / Den

Chest of drawers = Bureau

Wardrobe = Closet

Armchair = Easy chair

Larder / pantry = Pantry

Oven = Oven / stove

Cars
Mirror = Rear view mirror

Wing mirror = Side mirror

Indicators = Blinkers

Bonnet = Hood

Boot = Trunk

Windscreen = Windshield

Put your foot down = Step on the gas
(To drive fast)

Motor / wheels = Wheels
(Informal expressions for your car)

English verbs and adverbs that go together

Some verbs and adverbs go together naturally in English and it's often helpful to learn them as expressions.

act quickly: "We have to act quickly if we want to agree to their deal."

listen attentively: "She listened attentively to what her boss was saying."

play fair: "I don't feel that you are playing fair - you seem to change your mind when it suits you!"

search thoroughly: "The police searched the house thoroughly, but couldn't find any evidence."

sigh deeply: "He sighed deeply when he heard the news."

sit comfortably: "She was sitting comfortably on a sofa when he walked in."

speak softly: "It was difficult to hear her as she was speaking softly."

think carefully: "Please think about this carefully - it's a big decision."

vary widely: "Marriage customs vary widely from culture to culture."

work hard: "We work hard in the office."

English relative clauses

There are two types of relative clauses in English: those that add extra information (non-defining relative clauses) and those that modify (or define) the subject of the sentence (defining relative clauses).

Defining clauses
These clauses define the noun and they identify which thing or person we are referring to.

Things

"The present which he bought me is beautiful."

People

"The man who has started an English course is from Spain."

Using whom

Whom is used to refer to the object of the verb.

The people with whom I was sitting were very noisy.

However, it is hardly ever used in spoken English. Instead, "who" is used with the preposition:

The people who I was sitting with were very noisy.
To whom are you speaking? = Who are you speaking to?
For whom are you buying the present? + Who are you buying the present for?

Using that

In spoken English, "that" is often used instead of "which", "whom"or "who".

"The present that he bought me is beautiful."

"The man that has started an English course is from Spain."

When, where and whose

When: Is there another time when (that) I can call you?

Where: Can you tell me where I can buy wrapping paper?

Whose: (possessive) Have you seen the TV show whose catchphrase is "Deal no deal?"

Omitting that, who and which

If the pronoun ("that", "who", "which") is the object of the verb, it can be omitted.

"The company that she works for is based in London." ("That"is an object pronoun.)

= "The company she works for is based in London." ("That"can be omitted.)

But:

"The company that employs her is based in London." ("That" is a subject pronoun.)

The company employs her (the company is the subject). In this case, it is not possible to omit "that". You need the pronoun because it is the subject of the verb.

Non-defining relative clauses
These clauses add further information.

"My students, who are all adults, are learning English to get a better job."

"The textbooks, which the students like, have lots of helpful examples."

Commas are used to separate the relative clause from the rest of the sentence.

"That" cannot be used instead of "who"or "which" in non-defining relative clauses.

You can use "some", "none", "all" and "many" with "of which" and "of whom" to add extra information:
My students, many of whom are from Europe, are learning English to get a better job.
The textbooks, some of which the students like, have helpful examples.

Comparing defining and non-defining relative clauses

The meaning of the sentences changes if you use a non-defining clause rather than a defining clause. Compare the following:

Non-defining
The students, who had revised hard, passed the exam. (All the students revised and they all passed the exam.

Defining
The students who had revised hard passed the exam. (Only some of the students revised, and these were the ones who passed the exam.)

Adjectives

Knowing what is an adjective and what is an adverb is very important in English grammar. For example, the following sentences are typical mistakes, caused by confusion over the difference between adjectives and adverbs.

"He works hardly." ("He works hard.")
"She writes good." ("He writes well.")
"It's a really problem." ("It's a real problem.")

Adjectives describe nouns.
"A good student."
"A nice day."
"He is interesting."

Adverbs describe verbs or adjectives.
"He eats well."
"She learns quickly."
"A well-known book."
"I'm really tired."

Problems
1. Some adjectives and adverbs have the same form.

"She's a fast driver." (adj)
"She drives fast." (adv)

"TOEFL is a hard exam." (adj)
"The students work hard." (adv)

"She has straight hair." (adj)
"He went straight home." (adv)

2. Not all adverbs end in -ly.

"He is a good student."
"She works well with others."

3. Some adverbs have two meanings.

Hard
"He works hard."
"I hardly know him." (barely)

Close
"She sat close to the conductor on the bus." (next to)
"I listened closely to what he said." (paying attention)

Dead
"You're dead right!" (completely right)
"This snake is deadly - watch out for it." (fatal)

Fair
"He was fairly treated by the Immigration authorities." (justly)
"It's fairly cold today." (quite)

Fine
"How do you feel? Fine." (well)
"Finely chop the tomatoes." (in small pieces)

Free
"The english-at-home.com website is free of charge." (no money needed)
"Children can play freely in this park." (no limits to their freedom)

High
"We'll need to raise prices high in order to survive." (high prices)
"I think highly of him." (a high opinion)
"He's highly paid." (very well paid)

Late
"He arrived late for the meeting." (not on time)
"There have been a few complaints lately." (recently)

Right
"She walked right up to him and demanded to see the manager." (didn't stop until she got close to him)
"He rightly thought that he was going to lose his job." (correctly thought)

Wrong
"He wrongly told her that he had been promoted." (incorrectly)
"This is spelt wrong." (incorrect)
(You can only use 'wrong' when it's after the verb.)

4. Some words that end in -ly are not adverbs, but are adjectives.
For example, lovely, friendly, silly, lonely.

"She is silly."
"She behaves in a silly way."

"Her children are lovely."
"He treated her in a lovely way."

5. Some verbs are followed by adjectives.

"You look good today!"
"This soup tastes nice."
"He seems pleasant."
"I don't feel very happy at the moment."

In these examples, you are describing the subject (such as 'the soup') rather than the verb ('tastes').

English Articles

In English, knowing when to use 'a' or 'the' can be difficult. Fortunately, there are rules to help you, but you need to know what type of noun you are using.

Grammar rule 1
When you have a single, countable English noun, you must always have an article before it. We cannot say "please pass me pen", we must say "please pass me the pen" or "please pass me a pen" or "please pass me your pen".

Nouns in English can also be uncountable. Uncountable nouns can be concepts, such as 'life', 'happiness' and so on, or materials and substances, such as 'coffee', or 'wood'.

Grammar rule 2
Uncountable nouns don't use 'a' or 'an'. This is because you can't count them. For example, advice is an uncountable noun. You can't say "he gave me an advice", but you can say "he gave me some advice", or "he gave me a piece of advice".

Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable. For example, we say "coffee" meaning the product, but we say "a coffee" when asking for one cup of coffee.

Grammar rule 3
You can use 'the' to make general things specific. You can use 'the' with any type of noun - plural or singular, countable or uncountable.

"Please pass me a pen" - any pen.
"Please pass me the pen" - the one that we can both see.

"Children grow up quickly" - children in general.
"The children I know grow up quickly" - not all children, just the ones I know.

"Poetry can be beautiful"- poetry in general.
"The poetry of Hopkins is beautiful" - I'm only talking about the poetry Hopkins wrote.

More uses of articles in English
Rivers, mountain ranges, seas, oceans and geographic areas all use 'the'.
For example, "The Thames", "The Alps", "The Atlantic Ocean", "The Middle East".

Unique things have 'the'.
For example, "the sun", "the moon".

Some institutional buildings don't have an article if you visit them for the reason these buildings exist. But if you go to the building for another reason, you must use 'the'.

"Her husband is in prison." (He's a prisoner.)
"She goes to the prison to see him once a month."

"My son is in school." (He's a student.)
"I'm going to the school to see the head master."

"She's in hospital at the moment." (She's ill.)
"Her husband goes to the hospital to see her every afternoon."

Musical instruments use 'the'.
"She plays the piano."

Sports don't have an article.
"He plays football."

Illnesses don't have an article.
"He's got appendicitis."
But we say "a cold" and "a headache".

Jobs use 'a'.
"I'm a teacher."

Countries
We don't use 'a' if the country is singular. "He lives in England." But if the country's name has a "plural" meaning, we use 'the'. "The People's Republic of China", "The Netherlands", "The United States of America".

Continents, towns and streets don't have an article.
"Africa", "New York", "Church Street".

Theatres, cinemas and hotels have 'the'.
"The Odeon", "The Almeira", "The Hilton".

Abbreviations use 'the'.
"the UN", "the USA", "the IMF".

We use 'the' before classes of people.
"the rich", "the poor", "the British".

How to make comparisons in English

There are some rules to help you make comparisons in English.

1 If the adjective (describing word) is one syllable, you can add -er.

For example, small - smaller; big - bigger; nice - nicer.

2 If the adjective has two syllables, but ends in -y, you can change the end to -ier.

For example, lucky - luckier; happy - happier.

3 With other English adjectives of two syllables and more, you can't change their endings. Instead, you should use more + adjective.

For example, handsome - more handsome; beautiful - more beautiful and so on.

4 When you compare two things, use 'than'.

"She's younger than me."
"This exercise is more difficult than the last one."

5 When you want to say something is similar, use 'as - as'.

For example, "She's as tall as her brother" or "It's as nice today as it was yesterday."

6 When you want to say one thing is less than another, you can either use 'less than' or 'not as - as'.

For example, "This programme is less interesting than I thought" or "This programme is not as interesting as I thought."

7 Remember that some adjectives are irregular and change form when you make comparisons.

For example, good - better; bad - worse; far - further.

Using qualifying expressions
You can vary the strength of the comparison by using "qualifying" expressions.

1. Comparing two things

You can use "a lot", "much", "a little", "slightly" and "far" before "more / less than":

"She's a lot more intelligent than him."
"This car is much faster than the other one."
"They are much less wealthy than they used to be."
"He's a little taller than his sister."
"She's slightly less interested in football than him.
"We are far more involved in charity than they are."

When you use these qualifying expressions in English, remember the rules about using -er. If the adjective is one syllable, or ends in -y, add -er:

"He's far taller than her." (NOT "He's far more taller…")
"I'm much lazier than you!"

When the adjective is two syllables and more, you need either "more" or "less":

"He's a little more prepared for the exam than she is." (NOT "He's a little prepareder…")

2. Saying how two things are similar

You can use "almost as … as", "not quite as … as", "(not) nearly as … as", "nowhere near as … as", "twice as … as" and "half as … as" to change the extent of the similarity.

"She's almost as good as you!"
"He's not quite as confident as Susie."
"I'm not nearly as intelligent as her!"
"This painting is nowhere near as famous as the first."
"She's twice as old as him!
"He's half as interesting as you!"

Some and Any

We use some and any with uncountable nouns and plural nouns. The general rule is that you use "some" in positive sentences and "any" in negative sentences and questions.

"I have some ideas."
"I don't have any ideas."
"Do you have any ideas?"

However, we can also use "some" in questions.
"Would you like some tea?" (I expect the answer to be "Yes".)

When we use some in a question, we limit what we are offering the other person.

For example, "Can I get you something to drink? - Coffee, or tea?" means I am offering you a limited choice of things to drink.

When we use "any" in a question, we are not limiting the choice.

For example, "Would you like anything to drink?" includes a whole range of things to drink.
"Do you have any questions?" (You can ask me anything you like!)

We can also use any in positive sentences which have a negative meaning. We often use "any" with "hardly", "without" or "never".

"There's hardly any petrol left in the car - we need to go to a garage."
"He went out without any money on him."
"She never has any problem understanding."

Using Few / Little in English

We use a few and a little to mean "not very much" or "not very many". Whether you use a few or a little depends on what type of noun you are describing.


For example, "A few people came to the party." We use a few with plural, countable nouns.

"There's a little coffee left, if you would like some." We use a little with uncountable nouns.

We can also use few and little (without "a") for a more negative meaning. For example, "there's little point in calling" (= there's not much point calling).

"Few people understand" (not many people understand), compared to "a few people understand" (some people understand).

In spoken English, we can also say not many, or only a few to mean "few" and "only a little" or "not much" to mean "little".

When we make comparisons, we use fewer for plural nouns and less for uncountable nouns.
For example, "There are fewer people here than last year" or "he drinks less coffee than I do".

Using Lots of

In spoken English we often use lots of or a lot of. In written English, it is more common to write many (for countable plural nouns) or a great deal of (for uncountable nouns) in positive statements.

A common mistake is to use lot of. For example, "There are lot of accidents on this road". To avoid making this mistake, remember either to use a before lot, or to make lot plural - lots.

We can say either a lot of or lots of before a noun. For example, "There are a lot of people here" or "There are lots of people here". There isn't any difference between the two expressions.

We can also use a lot as an adverb to say how much you do something. For example, "She talks a lot".

A lot is also used in short answers. For example, "Do you like swimming?", "Yes, a lot."

Linking words

Linking words help you to connect ideas and sentences, so that people can follow your ideas.


Giving examples

For example
For instance
Namely

The most common way of giving examples is by using for example or for instance.

Namely refers to something by name.

"There are two problems: namely, the expense and the time."

Adding information

And
In addition
As well as
Also
Too
Furthermore
Moreover
Apart from
In addition to
Besides

Ideas are often linked by and. In a list, you put a comma between each item, but not before and.

"We discussed training, education and the budget."

Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis. "We also spoke about marketing."

You can use also with not only to give emphasis.

"We are concerned not only by the costs, but also by the competition."

We don't usually start a sentence with also. If you want to start a sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition, or In addition to this…

As well as can be used at the beginning or the middle of a sentence.

"As well as the costs, we are concerned by the competition."

"We are interested in costs as well as the competition."

Too goes either at the end of the sentence, or after the subject and means as well.

"They were concerned too."

"I, too, was concerned."

Apart from and besides are often used to mean as well as, or in addition to.

"Apart from Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."

"Besides Rover, we are the largest sports car manufacturer."

Moreover and furthermore add extra information to the point you are making.

"Marketing plans give us an idea of the potential market. Moreover, they tell us about the competition."

Summarising

In short
In brief
In summary
To summarise
In a nutshell
To conclude
In conclusion

We normally use these words at the beginning of the sentence to give a summary of what we have said or written.

Sequencing ideas

The former, … the latter
Firstly, secondly, finally
The first point is
Lastly
The following

The former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points.
"Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in the first term and the latter is studied in the final term."

Firstly, … secondly, … finally (or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.

It's rare to use "fourthly", or "fifthly". Instead, try the first point, the second point, the third point and so on.

The following is a good way of starting a list.

"The following people have been chosen to go on the training course: N Peters, C Jones and A Owen."

Giving a reason

Due to / due to the fact that
Owing to / owing to the fact that
Because
Because of
Since
As

Due to and owing to must be followed by a noun.

"Due to the rise in oil prices, the inflation rate rose by 1.25%."

"Owing to the demand, we are unable to supply all items within 2 weeks."

If you want to follow these words with a clause (a subject, verb and object), you must follow the words with the fact that.

"Due to the fact that oil prices have risen, the inflation rate has gone up by 1%25."

"Owing to the fact that the workers have gone on strike, the company has been unable to fulfil all its orders."

Because / because of

Because of is followed by a noun.

"Because of bad weather, the football match was postponed."

Because can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence. For example, "Because it was raining, the match was postponed."

"We believe in incentive schemes, because we want our employees to be more productive."

Since / as

Since and as mean because.

"Since the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

"As the company is expanding, we need to hire more staff."

Giving a result

Therefore
So
Consequently
This means that
As a result

Therefore, so, consequently and as a result are all used in a similar way.

"The company are expanding. Therefore / So / Consequently / As a result, they are taking on extra staff."

So is more informal.

Contrasting ideas

But
However
Although / even though
Despite / despite the fact that
In spite of / in spite of the fact that
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
While
Whereas
Unlike
In theory… in practice…

But is more informal than however. It is not normally used at the beginning of a sentence.

"He works hard, but he doesn't earn much."
"He works hard. However, he doesn't earn much."

Although, despite and in spite of introduce an idea of contrast. With these words, you must have two halves of a sentence.

"Although it was cold, she went out in shorts."
"In spite of the cold, she went out in shorts."

Despite and in spite of are used in the same way as due to and owing to. They must be followed by a noun. If you want to follow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that.

"Despite the fact that the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees."

Nevertheless and nonetheless mean in spite of that or anyway.

"The sea was cold, but he went swimming nevertheless." (In spite of the fact that it was cold.)
"The company is doing well. Nonetheless, they aren't going to expand this year."

While, whereas and unlike are used to show how two things are different from each other.

"While my sister has blue eyes, mine are brown."

"Taxes have gone up, whereas social security contributions have gone down."

"Unlike in the UK, the USA has cheap petrol."

In theory… in practice… show an unexpected result.

"In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but in practice, they often don't have enough time."

Like and As

Like and as are often confused in English. They can both be used to talk about how things are similar.

Like is followed by a noun or pronoun. For example, "I'm like my sister", or "Like my sister, I have brown eyes."

As is followed by a subject and verb. For example, "She's a good student, as her brother was before her."

However, in spoken English, like is often used instead of as. "She's a good student, like her brother was before her."

As is used with a preposition, such as, "As in the 1960's, the population explosion will cause some problems."

We can use as in certain expressions, such as "as you know", "as you requested", "as we agreed".

We also use as…..as to give comparisons. For example, "He's as clever as his sister."

"If" sentences

There are four main types of if sentences in English, often called conditional sentences.

These sentences are in two halves, with the if part in one half and the other part where you can use words such as can, will, may, might, could and would.

If + present form + present form
"If you heat ice, it melts."

In this type of sentence, you could use when instead of if. It's always true that when you heat ice it melts. This is why this type of sentence is sometimes called a zero conditional.

If + present form, + will, can or may
"If I am late, I will call you."

"If you need me, you can call me at home."

"If it gets any hotter, we may have a thunder storm."

In these sentences (or first conditional sentences), there is a strong possibility that the first part (coming after if) is going to happen. The second part says what will happen as a result.

If + past form + would, could or might
"If I got a pay rise, I would buy a new car."

"If you left your job, you could travel around the world."

"If you were nicer to him, he might lend you the money."

In these sentences, the first part with if shows that the event is unlikely to happen. In English, we often use this type of sentence (called a second conditional) to talk about hypotheses, or imaginary future events.

For example, "If I was President of the United States, I would change some laws." But I know that I'll never be the President of the USA - I'm just saying what I would do if I was in his/her position. Note: in American English, it is correct to use "if I were…" In British English, it's more common to say "if I was…"

If + past perfect + would/might/could have done
"If I had revised, I would have passed my exams."

"If we had gone out earlier, we might have got to the cinema on time."

"If you had told me there was a problem, I could have helped."

In these sentences (or third conditional sentences), the first part of the sentence with if didn't happen. So there is no possibility of the second part of the sentence happening. I didn't revise, so I didn't pass my exams and there is nothing I can do about it now. English speakers use this type of sentence to show how things could have been different.